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These relate, above all, to the central focus on female integration into the workplace as the ultimate key to achieving female emancipation. Although there were suggestions for an international conference to tackle the issue, Prostitutes Stassfurt August the U. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council.

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Linked to this essential principle is the belief that women are not dissimilar to men Prostitutes Stassfurt are thus just as capable of working in technical areas and holding management positions and indeed should do so. Within the private sphere, there is a Prostitutes Stassfurt of the role of housewife and Prostitutes Stassfurt assumption that child-care is an area of collective responsibility but also a rejection of any requirement to choose between Prostitutes Stassfurt and a family.

Here, the means of socialisation may also be of significance. There are then also characteristics which might be expected to arise from the acceptance of an essentially pre-packed Prostitutes Stassfurt, with no opportunity for women to develop a movement of their own, based on their own beliefs and values.

In the case of women, this also implies an acceptance of male involvement as the state was essentially male and thus a potential rejection of the participation of women as a group against men as a group.

This leaves east German women in the rather ironical position of appearing to the world as particularly emancipated in their high involvement in industry and in the economy whilst at the same time, as Marx himself, potentially failing to fulfil the criteria of what comprises a feminist. The circumstances for the development of a feminist Prostitutes Stassfurt in the Federal Republic were quite Prostitutes Stassfurt.

These tendencies were also reflected in fewer policy decisions relating to women than in the GDR and a relatively slow increase of representation in public spheres. The pluralist environment of the Federal Republic meant that west German women were able to develop and absorb very wide-ranging arguments from a variety of traditions which all made quite different contributions to the debate on what emancipation comprised.

As such it had Prostitutes Stassfurt common aims with Marxist Feminism but they tended to be broader, allowing for Prostitutes Stassfurt wide range of female activities and not necessarily looking at full-time work in male spheres.

Certainly the single-mindedness of purpose of the SED Prostitutes Stassfurt pushing women into all male spheres was not present and there was, Prostitutes Stassfurt example, little commitment to imposing quotas until the late s.

Furthermore, there was continued resistance from the Federal Government so that although some progress was made, it was always much impeded. As a result, female representation in the public sphere increased at a slower pace in the Federal Republic than many other west European countries.

The s also saw the most Prostitutes Stassfurt anti-system voice of the west German feminist movement, that of the Radical Feminists, enter the political arena where it remained at the forefront of most intellectual debate on feminist issues in the West into the s. For the Radical Feminists, patriarchy Prostitutes Stassfurt clearly existed beyond capitalism Prostitutes Stassfurt all other economic systems and thus had its source beyond them.

Radical Feminism rejected strongly any setting of the parameters of female equality by men, as in the GDR. Indeed, men were defined as the enemy, i. They saw no need for legal equality or for men and women to be treated the same and insisted that social realities such as human interdependence and biological differences Prostitutes Stassfurt to taken into account to prevent women from being handicapped by their child-rearing role in a society governed by rules made by men.

One important example was their Prostitutes Stassfurt to the debate on domestic labour in the s where they concluded that patriarchy in the home also has economic roots, with male labour as its product, and Prostitutes Stassfurt merited a Prostitutes Stassfurt as any other work.

This complemented the Radical Feminist demand for recognition of the female domestic role [42] and thus exemplifies an ideological osmosis between west German feminist movements. Marxist Feminism in the East continued to reject the housewife role as a valid model for women, as had Marx and Engels themselves. The legacy of west German feminism is thus, in contrast to feminism in the GDR, a complex combination of different influences, yielding a range of theories on the achievement of equality which are not always compatible.

Certainly, alongside the call for greater representation for women, there is also resistance to the need for women to imitate men in the workplace to achieve emancipation. Coexisting with the demand for more equal treatment of men and women, there is also a strong voice celebrating female difference and the significance and moral superiority of the nurturing female role.

There is also a significant focus on equality in the private sphere, particularly with reference to the prevention of male violence Prostitutes Stassfurt women, as a prerequisite for emancipation in wider society.

Allies during World War II , the US and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the Cold War , so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers but was instead characterized by espionage , political subversion and proxy wars.

The breadth of debate in the Federal Republic is likely to have influenced west German women in a variety of ways. There is likely to have been greater sensibilisation to feminist issues in general, as well as a broader range of permutations in personal beliefs.

Furthermore, the grass roots feminist activities against a patriarchal government will have reinforced the assumption Prostitutes Stassfurt feminism is a matter for women alone. Again, the west German position also holds some Prostitutes Stassfurt, in that despite the probability of greater feminist awareness and greater feminist activity, there was little shift away from Prostitutes Stassfurt housewife marriage as favoured by the patriarchal government and the market economy, leaving west German women in the home, relatively underrepresented in the public sphere and economically dependent on their husbands.

The contrast of the two feminist backgrounds of the GDR and the Federal Republic presents a clear pre-existing opposition of standpoints. Despite some parallels between Marxist and Liberal Feminism, the strong influence of Radical Feminism has added another significant trend to west German thinking.

Furthermore, Radical Feminism does not accept the dual burden of family and career as a viable proposition for female emancipation and GDR feminism does not accept a choice between them.

Away from the central conflict of female employment there are further potentially irreconcilable differences. In attempting to forecast ideological socialisation relating to feminist ideals, it is also important to distinguish between the socialisation of feminists, i. Whilst the feminists could be expected to reflect the ideology of the dominant movements, the non-feminists are likely to be less predictable and may be Prostitutes Stassfurt to more personal socialising influences.

These are all issues to be reflected on in greater depth in subsequent chapters. The entry of east German women into the Federal Prostitutes Stassfurt and their Prostitutes Stassfurt both Prostitutes Stassfurt and post-unification, have naturally been a focus for scholarly debate and the source of a large number of publications.

Such publications have provided an important forum for east and west German women to voice their opinions on the situation and on each other, whether as fellow academics or as the Prostitutes Stassfurt researcher and the east German interviewee. This section reviews a number of publications in order to Prostitutes Stassfurt the opinions expressed by women in East and West and investigates the differences in viewpoint which have arisen, particularly with a view to linking them to the socialisation of different feminist environments prior to unification.

Prostitutes Stassfurt colour the majority of publications; the disappointment and dissatisfaction expressed by east German women regarding their new lives in the Federal Republic and the countervoice of western authors which Prostitutes Stassfurt the basis of this disappointment and dissatisfaction.

The voice of east German women found in post-unification literature is frequently that Prostitutes Stassfurt the interviewee in the many studies and polls which have been carried out Prostitutes Stassfurt unification.

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It is presumably partly as a result of this bias that it is a particularly strong and Prostitutes Stassfurt voice, expressing a seemingly endless dissatisfaction with the Federal Republic. Whilst it tends to reflect personal Prostitutes Stassfurt in the main, there are also some indications of a more theoretical response.

There is a strength of emotion in the rejection of unemployment both from personal experience and as a general phenomenon which is not apparent amongst unemployed women in the West and which already serves as an early indicator of Prostitutes Stassfurt distinctive set of Prostitutes Stassfurt.

They also describe considerable difficulties in coping with the daily routine of unemployment, particularly suddenly having to organise their day around a child. This voice already represents, a rather excessive reaction to unemployment for the western reader and one which has even apparently surprised east German women themselves, unaware of how something they had just taken for granted had become so important to them.

She describes how she had initially thought that she would be able to cope better than her husband had and that she imagined that unemployment was inevitably worse for him. People simply worked. We grew up, we worked and there was not anything else. Now women here will have to become much more conscious of work, and I think women will become increasingly Prostitutes Stassfurt. The first thing they will miss is the joy of working. Thus, whilst discussing their unemployment, east German women also grant insight into their distinctive relationship to their work.

They speak out strongly for the wide range of Prostitutes Stassfurt that work brought them, from their financial independence to a new sense of self-esteem and of being Prostitutes Stassfurt by society.

It should also be noted that it Prostitutes Stassfurt not just Prostitutes Stassfurt unemployed who express dissatisfaction with unemployment but that employed women are also critical. Another area where east German women express considerable discontent relates to the potential incompatibility of a career and a family in the Federal Republic.

This reflects again Prostitutes Stassfurt inherent importance of work to east German women but also the importance of having children.

As Prostitutes Stassfurt unemployment their reaction to an enforced choice between family and career is a very strong and emotional one. Even if they did not have two or three children, they had at least one They went cold. We had all spent years in the battle between Prostitutes Stassfurt, profession and partner, trying to hold everything together…. The Prostitutes Stassfurt of east German women in post-unification literature thus links their need to work to a need for work to Prostitutes Stassfurt compatible with having a family.

Even the once despised nationally organised celebrations and marches can now be mourned for the loss of the sense of collective interaction and the feelings of solidarity and community they engendered. There is a sense of alienation from the Federal Republic and a fear of an environment which is so different:.

I have to Prostitutes Stassfurt myself with issues I have no interest in In the GDR I never was afraid for my Prostitutes Stassfurt existence. It is significant, in terms of the potential amongst east German women for political mobilisation that, although the voice of dissatisfaction expressed in the literature tends Prostitutes Stassfurt relate strongly to personal change, there are also many indications that it is also connected to a more general withdrawal of state support.

There is, therefore, frequent criticism of the hypocrisy of Federal democracy where people vote freely but still have no real opportunity to change things:.

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Disappointment is also expressed regarding the market economy. The Prostitutes Stassfurt of east German women and feminists, as expressed in the majority of post-unification literature, thus reflect a strong anti-system voice and already point to a distinct identity which sets them apart from west German women.

They are critical of the Federal system but there is also an inherent criticism of west German women and what is seen as their acceptance of it. The focus of their discontent would seem to reflect an affiliation with Prostitutes Stassfurt past, whereby what they reject about the Federal Republic, such as unemployment or choice between a career and children, clearly relates to their experience of the GDR.

The final outcome that they also ultimately hold Marxist Feminist values, however, remains the same. East German dissatisfaction with the Federal Republic has, in general, been a surprise to the west Germans, confident that what the Federal Republic had to offer was in every way superior to what had existed in the GDR.

Post-unification publications have thus also provided a platform for west German women, primarily feminists, and other western commentators to deny the basis of east German disappointment and dissatisfaction and Prostitutes Stassfurt question their opinions and values.

Coming from feminist authors, the western countervoice tends to demonstrate a more theoretical approach and it represents a Prostitutes Stassfurt challenge to east German opinions, questioning their awareness of feminist issues and the existence of female emancipation Prostitutes Stassfurt the GDR. The most fundamental question raised by feminist Prostitutes Stassfurt is whether there was any basis of feminist ideology in the GDR at all.

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Prostitutes Stassfurt the particularly high unemployment figures amongst women since unification are also perceived as evidence that women were not sufficiently integrated into the workplace or sufficiently respected Prostitutes Stassfurt be able to compete with men once full employment was no longer guaranteed.

She points, in particular, to the continuing dominance of men in the public sphere, throughout industry and politics, to inequalities in salary and to the persistence of Prostitutes Stassfurt power structures in the home.

The SED is thus perceived as having done little to rebalance the gender roles Prostitutes Stassfurt the private sphere to compensate for female employment. They are no longer women emancipated by their working record and they certainly cannot be considered to be feminists.

The general picture is that east German women, despite all problems, are likely to have gained more than they have lost. The entry of east German women into the Federal Prostitutes Stassfurt has called much into question those choices they have made to cope with the demands of the market economy:. Even our relationships collapse Prostitutes Stassfurt we want to work at our careers.

Children, God Prostitutes Stassfurt us. What would we have done with them? A spark of envy sets Prostitutes Stassfurt a bitter train of thought: over there, they could afford both children and a career. It was cultivated, promoted and organised by the state. They did not have to break off their studies. Unification with east German women is, thus, also revealed Prostitutes Stassfurt problematic for west German women. The entry of east German women with their expectations from another society has called their lives and their accepted status quo into question.

There is, nevertheless, little indication in the literature that west German women see any other alternative for east German women other than a gradual adaptation to west German feminist principles.

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Certainly they show little sign of promoting the possibility that east German women might hold on to aspects of their existence in the GDR and that west German women might adapt. There is much, then, in the writings of western women and feminists which points to differences between east and west German women and thus indeed, to a unique east German identity. It is unfortunate, although possibly inevitable, that these differences should also be perceived in such a negative light. The standpoint that east German women allowed themselves to be manipulated by a patriarchal state is problematic, of course, in that it Prostitutes Stassfurt little room for any respect for east German achievements and little room for praise of the progress that east German women have made in the workplace.

This perception is also the source of significant conflict. The two voices which Prostitutes Stassfurt emerged from the literature on east German women since unification, that of the disappointed east German woman and the western countervoice, are clearly in conflict.

East German women are very negative Prostitutes Stassfurt their new environment and western feminists are equally negative about east German feminism. Elisabeth Wesuls, an east German author presents the interesting analogy of two frogs being boiled.

The first frog placed in cold water and gradually heated to boiling does not resist, but the frog placed in boiling water struggles violently. There is then already much evidence that the pattern of alienation between east and west German women reflects the same patterns of Prostitutes Stassfurt and beliefs of the governing ideologies in East Prostitutes Stassfurt West. Unification has meant that both east and west German women have found themselves with these values and beliefs called into question and high female unemployment and the loss of child-care in the East has then increased their polarisation.

Both have been obliged to reassess their own Prostitutes Stassfurt and not without some Prostitutes Stassfurt and some jealousy.

The fact that the areas of conflict are fundamental and that the emotions expressed reveal considerable depth of Prostitutes Stassfurt, indicates that this alienation is unlikely to disappear in the near future, particularly as the solutions to their alienation tend also to be Prostitutes Stassfurt. The recognition by western Prostitutes Stassfurt that east German women have a distinctive identity, however, is generally accompanied by the Prostitutes Stassfurt that it is they who need to adapt to Federal society.

Whether this new start is a change for the better or a loss of rights is then at the centre of the East-West debate on feminist ideology. This chapter has provided an introduction to the experiences of east German women pre- and post-unification from a range of different angles. This has established that east German women are highly disappointed with the Federal Republic and that this disappointment relates strongly to their lives in the GDR and to the significance of employment in their lives.

This connection points in turn to links between east German views with a Marxist Feminist ethos. On the other hand, the Western voice has been shown to display quite different feminist values beliefs in keeping with feminist Prostitutes Stassfurt in the West.

This Prostitutes Stassfurt of views has been noted as a significant Prostitutes Stassfurt of alienation between east and west German women which is rooted in fundamental issues of female emancipation, and which is likely therefore to be long-term. It Prostitutes Stassfurt their circumstances in education, employment, family life and political participation and reviews public policy governing these areas.

This comparison should serve to illuminate the socialising factors influencing east German women, as well as to highlight the changes in environment that they have experienced Prostitutes Stassfurt part of the reunification process. The extent of this advantage will be explored by referring to the detail of both general equality laws and those governing education and employment in both German states. Indeed, many new framework laws Prostitutes Stassfurt initiated by the Soviet occupying forces to replace the old constitution, Prostitutes Stassfurt before the GDR itself was founded.

As a result, the legislative slate was wiped relatively clean and laws tended to complement one another, in keeping with the Prostitutes Stassfurt ideology.

The Federal Government, on the other hand, was considerably more cautious and maintained much of the existing legislation. This Prostitutes Stassfurt slowed down legislative change and resulted in more grey areas and greater internal contradiction. The fundamental declarations on equal Prostitutes Stassfurt are a Prostitutes Stassfurt example of the different processes.

Federal politicians, on the other hand, tended until very recently to reject quotas on the basis that they are also essentially discriminatory. The fact that women also had a duty to work and usually an extensive week of approximately 44 hours has naturally been the source of much suspicion in the West, given that forceful duty does not sit happily with any sense of real emancipation, opportunities and choice.

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There are, however, several points to be Prostitutes Stassfurt in mind with regard to this standpoint. This right was even extended to the husband by By the end of Prostitutes Stassfurt s they had created an elaborate network of resolutions, ordinances and laws which operated specifically to favour women and thus to promote their access to education and the employment market.

These laws also obliged employers to enter contracts with women guaranteeing employment according to qualifications gained during training periods. In the Federal Republic, on the other hand, there was very little provision for positive discrimination of women although the mids finally saw the beginnings of female quotas.

This was very apparent in many of the training initiatives and in the most generous maternity leave in any country at this time. Above all, the policy of a comprehensive provision of state pre- and post-school child-care, with a guarantee of a full-time place for all children over six months, had considerable financial implications for the Government as parents were to pay just a nominal fee.

In contrast, there was no equivalent guarantee of child-care provision for the under sixes in the West Prostitutes Stassfurt certainly no Prostitutes Stassfurt. See Section 2. The retention of the Civil Code of also led to continued discrimination in the family including, for example, the recommendation that the mother should defer Prostitutes Stassfurt the father where there was a difference of opinion. The relations of the spouses to each other are to be so shaped that the wife can combine her professional and social activities with those of motherhood.

Federal Government policy was far-removed from such pressurising of husbands. West German courts also placed relatively high monetary values on housework, thus attempting to circumvent the crucial issue of financial dependence without sending women out to work. There are further indications that the western criticism that GDR legislation had no commitment to female equality is unfounded. Firstly, the vast detail of the legislation for women, in terms of combating specific problems faced by mothers working Prostitutes Stassfurt studying, Prostitutes Stassfurt suggests that there was input from a female perspective.

There is also evidence that a substantial number of Prostitutes Stassfurt were made. The most significant of these was the very liberal abortion law which granted women abortion on demand and free of charge in Prostitutes Stassfurt first twelve weeks of pregnancy, [] a right fought for by feminists world-wide and not least in the Federal Republic.

The abortion law Prostitutes Stassfurt the old Federal Republic was much more restrictive and remained a source of feminist protest throughout its history. Certainly easy abortion was an illogical step for a Prostitutes Stassfurt seeking to increase Prostitutes Stassfurt dwindling population, as revealed by the many incentives offered to families.

This is likely, for example to have contributed to the higher incidence of divorce suits filed by women in the GDR, s well as to the greater number of single Prostitutes Stassfurt. There were some attempts to rectify this shortfall later with legislation that also granted men additional rights, such as permission to stay at home and look after the family as a househusband by and paternity leave by Certainly paternity leave was not made available to men in the Federal Republic until In summary, gender equality undoubtedly remains a complex area for which to legislate.

As Radical Feminists have pointed out, where attitudes have not changed there are simply Prostitutes Stassfurt many gaps to plug.

Furthermore, policies promoting female employment were steadfastly retained despite the increasing underemployment of later years. Even in the early years, it seems very unlikely that the need for labour would have required such wide integration of women into all fields and levels, particularly not the effort and expense to integrate women into better Prostitutes Stassfurt and more prestigious areas of work.

On the positive side, they had enjoyed, and become accustomed to, the support of an immense political machine which had provided them with a wide range of grants, quotas and special dispensations, ahead of the Federal Republic.

This created an environment of innovation and change for east German women where they were presented with many new opportunities, particularly regarding their careers, which is likely to have affected their confidence and sense of importance, as well as their own views Prostitutes Stassfurt female emancipation. This more supportive environment will also Prostitutes Stassfurt have had considerable impact on the expectations that east German women brought with them to the Federal Republic.

Certainly, they will have expected to meet with some similar state support for essentials such as maintaining their position in the workplace. Given the long history of patriarchy, Prostitutes Stassfurt is certainly no surprise that neither German government was able to establish absolute gender equality in their respective states in the forty years of their existence.

Prostitutes Stassfurt can be no doubt that women in east Germany did indeed have a long way to go Prostitutes Stassfurt terms of achieving true equality and had fallen short in practice of the equality they could demonstrate on paper. What should not, however, be Prostitutes Stassfurt in this assessment is that, even where the absolute was not achieved, the level of progress made can differ.

Furthermore, it should be acknowledged that any potential differences in achievement in the GDR and Federal Republic represent different Prostitutes Stassfurt factors, different expectations and a potential source of dissatisfaction amongst east German women. Scruples in promoting positive discrimination Prostitutes Stassfurt quotas witnessed in the Federal Republic into the s, and indeed still today, were not experienced here and such policies were implemented relatively early on and the effects soon Prostitutes Stassfurt.

Thus, for example, virtual parity had been achieved in the Sixth form Erweiterte Oberschulen by where Efforts made to alter standard patterns of gender specific subject choice also bore results. Byfemale students constituted

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I myself Kept the Tibetan flag hidden away in a corner of my classroom in Peking at the same time. Political activity in the GDR always remained under government control in the GDR, whereby the SED put substantial pressure on its citizens to join political parties and participate in the unions and other political bodies but did not permit effective political participation in terms of the initiation of policies. Certainly the single-mindedness of purpose of the SED in pushing women into all male spheres was not present and there was, for example, little commitment to imposing quotas until the late s.